Essay Essays (1598 words) - Social Philosophy, Animal Rights

Essay Singer's thesis is that we ought to extend to (non-human) animals the same equality of consideration that we extend to human beings. Here's how I think the main contours of his argument shape up: 1. The only criterion of moral importance that succeeds in including all humans, and excluding all non-humans, is simple membership in the species Homo sapiens. 2. However, using simple membership in the species Homo sapiens as a criterion of moral importance is completely arbitrary. 3. Of the remaining criteria we might consider, only sentiencethe capacity of a being to experience things like pleasure and painis a plausible criterion of moral importance. 4. Using sentience as a criterion of moral importance entails that we extend to other sentient creatures the same basic moral consideration (i.e. "basic principle of equality") that we extend to (typical, sentient) human beings. 5. Therefore, we ought to extend to animals the same equality of consideration that we extend to human beings. Details 1. The only criterion of moral importance that succeeds in including all humans, and excluding all non-humans, is simple membership in the species Homo sapiens. Singer argues for this simply by pointing to variation among humans. If we examine the usual characteristics that people say all humans, and only humans, share, we always find that there are human beings who lack those characteristics: Like it or not, we must face the fact that humans come in different shapes and sizes; they come with differing moral capacities, differing intellectual abilities, differing amounts of benevolent feeling and sensitivity to the needs of others, differing abilities to communicate effectively, and differing capacities to experience pleasure and pain. In short, if the demand for equality were based on the actual equality of all human beings, we would have to stop demanding equality. (173) The only characteristic that every single human being has in common, that no other animal has, is membership in the human species. If you want to say that every human is morally important, and humans are the only creatures that are morally important, your criterion for moral importance must be based simply on species membership. 2. However, using simple membership in the species Homo sapiens as a criterion of moral importance is completely arbitrary. Singer seems to think this is fairly obvious once it is stated. If there is, in fact, no relevant difference between your group and some other group, there is no rational ground for thinking that those who belong to your group deserve greater consideration than those who belong to the other group. Although it is fairly natural for people to use a criterion like this, Singer thinks the obvious parallels with racism are so striking as to invalidate that natural impulse. (This is a typically consequentialist way of thinking; you should consider how deontologists might look at this given the allowance for duties of special relationships in deontological ethics. Should common species membership be considered an appropriate special relationship?) 3. Of the remaining criteria we might consider, only sentiencethe capacity of a being to experience things like pleasure and painis a plausible criterion of moral importance. Singer argues for this in two ways. First, he argues, by example, that the other criteria are bad, because (again) they will exclude people who we think ought not be excluded. For instance, we don't really think that it would be permissible to disregard the well-being of someone who has much lower intelligence than average, so we can't possibly think that intelligence is a suitable criterion for moral consideration. Second, he argues that it is only by virtue of something being sentient that it can be said to have interests at all, so this places sentience in a different category than the other criteria: "The capacity for suffering and enjoying things is a prerequisite for having interests at all, a condition that must be satisfied before we can speak of interests in any meaningful way" (175). That is, Singer is trying to establish that if a being is not sentient, the idea of extending moral consideration to it makes no sense. This negative argument is important, because one common criticism of Singer is that his criterion ends up excluding humans who are no longer sentient (like those in an irreversible coma); Singer is content to accept that consequence,

Values of White Trash essays

Values of White Trash essays Coming home from an exhausting day at work, you sit in your recliner to relax as you hear foul shouting blurting from your childs bedroom. Curiously you walk towards the room to find the shouting coming from the guests on the Jerry Springer Show. You think to yourself, why is my child watching daytime talk shows, or as the majority refer to it, Trash TV. The storm clouds have been gathering for quite some time now. Is the end near for Trash TV? Concerned viewers, legislators, and press are worried about television show content in general, however, some of our trashy Talk Shows have received more than their fair share of attention in the last few years. What Im concerned with is, What are these shows teaching our children and how does this affect our Many of the guests on TV daytime talk shows are portrayed differently according to the topic; however, the guests seem to all have something in common: their background and behavior. Watching a variety of these TV daytime talk shows recently, Ive observed that the bulk of these guests all appear to be whites, Hispanics, or African Americans of the lower or middle class. They all come from the same type of living conditions and crazy lifestyles. People may even mention the words white trash, referring of course to the Caucasian guests. Insinuating that the background of the guests is inadequate, they do not mind being ridiculed for their outrageous beliefs and lifestyles. To these guests this is their normal lifestyle; besides, why do audience members and viewers find these guests lives to be so interesting? What make these shows so popular? It seems that the audience and viewers enjoy watching people spill guts about everyday garbage life. Viewers are entertained by the mockery of people whom they arent familiar with because there is no connection to the vie...

Ea, E., Itzhaki, M., Ehezrenfeld, M., & Fitzpatrick, J. (2012) Assignment

Ea, E., Itzhaki, M., Ehezrenfeld, M., & Fitzpatrick, J. (2012). Acculturation among immigrant nurses in Israel and the United S - Assignment Example Who participated or contributed data? The study involved the participation of 50 FSU nurses who are undergoing the process of completing an 18-months educational program at a training school in Israel to become professional registered nurses (RNs), and currently serving as practical nurses. All the participants have an experience in working with the FSU as well as old age homes. A Short Acculturation Scale for Filipino Americans (ASASFA) and demographic questionnaires were administered to 141 Filipino RNs. What methods were used to collect data? Acculturation was conducted through the use of A Short Acculturation Scale for Filipino Americans. A t-test was then conducted to identify the variability in acculturation between the two groups. Data was collected by use of questionnaires which were administered to the 50 FSU nurses. Convenience sampling technique was used in the recruitment of the Filipino RNs attending a national convention organized by Philippines Nurses Association of Am erican. ASASFA was used to determine acculturation among Filipino RNs. The translated version was used to assess the FSU nurses. Was an intervention tested? No intervention was tested. What were the main findings? All FSU nurses were female with 68 per cent of them being married, 18% not married and the rest divorced. The age range of the participants was from 25 to 49 years with a mean of 34 years. The average length of residence in Israel was found to be 9.6 years. 66% of the participants reported average income, 32% reported low income while 2% reported high income. The purchasing power parity of the FSU nurses was found to be reasonable. An analysis of the Filipino RNs showed that 86.5% were female and 68.8% married. They had a group mean age of 45 years, 92.9% have a baccalaureate degree in nursing and an annual income of more than $60 000. Their average length of USA residency is 18 years. The acculturation mean for all FSU nurses was 2.15 out of 5 with a standard deviation of 0.39. The Filipino RNs group acculturation mean was found out to be 3 with a standard deviation of 0.39. The t-test confirmed the presence of a significant difference in acculturation between the two groups i.e. 11.30. The results indicate that the acculturation level of the Filipino RNs leaned towards the host culture. However, the FSU nurses portrayed an acculturation that is close to their original culture than the Israel culture. A high acculturation mean between the Filipino RNs indicates that they were comfortable with the use of the host’s language in all aspects of interactions. They were also comfortable with interacting with the members of the host culture. Credibility Is the study published in a source that required peer review? Yes X No ___Not sure ___ The publishing of the study in an article that requires peer review portrays the standard and credible nature of the results. Was the design used appropriate to the research questions? Yes X No ___Not sure ___ The descriptive design and convenience sampling was appropriate for answering the research questions. The researchers were interested in exploring acculturation differences between immigrant nurses in Israel and the United States of America. Did the data obtained and the analysis conducted answers the research ques

Which came first law or social change Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Which came first law or social change - Essay Example (Calavita 45) discuses the factor of racial classification in the fourth chapter titled â€Å"The Color of Law† where she explains how the differences in race apply in the immigration law and racial profiling. Legal pluralism is the existence of different legal systems that operate together simultaneously. These systems operate on different levels of the society and usually they do not contradict each other in their provisions. An example of a pluralist legislative system interaction is the United States of America federal system where federal state and local laws operate together. The legal system works to come into consensus with some legal issues, the legal issues here include the death penalty, rights, and gun control, and minimum wage policies. The other form of legal pluralism accepted globally across multiple jurisdictions, which include female genital mutilation, human trafficking, and environmental provisions. (Calavita 27) on her sixth chapter talks about application of law across individuals in society, she elaborates the difference between â€Å"law on books and law in action† apply. According to her, there are laws that allow unequal treatment of individuals in society. The law in this instance does not discriminate on race, sex nor class but its resulting action in the application due to its structure. Discrimination in this case becomes evident in the application of the law in a way that it favors the privileged at the cost of the disadvantaged. The courts in their decisions make them in a way to favor the haves. There is also sexual discrimination where the system favors men, and the women marginalized. Political and class biases are evident. (Calavita 88) Legal pluralism exposes the tension between the law and society. When individual across the boundaries and the law applicable contradicts with the current law or law to be applied seen to be

Research paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Research Paper Example These x-rays are produced by neutron stars or extremely hot objects and a few radioactive sources. Moreover, in the medical field, x-rays are used to treat cancers, and that while soft x-rays are stopped by air, hard x-rays can penetrate deeply into the damaged tissue (â€Å"The Electromagnetic Spectrum†). Nevertheless, one distinguishing feature of x-rays in its use in geophysics is that through x-ray images of the sun, one can obtain important clues with regard to solar flares and other physical changes in the sun that can affect space weather and Earth weather. (De Lloyd) Ultraviolet Rays Aside from the practical uses of UV in detecting forged bank notes, hardening certain types of dental filling and sterilization of surgical equipment in hospitals (â€Å"Ultra Violet†), this kind of light is also placed on UV telescopes on satellites in order to measure the amount of UV coming from stars, galaxies and the Sun itself. Moreover, astronomers can study stars and galaxie s by virtue of the UV light that they give off (â€Å"Ultraviolet Waves,† NASA). ... In the portable spectrometer, UV light is used with all the visible light as well as Near Infrared light. (â€Å"Observing the Earth†) Visible Rays Aside from its most practical purpose, which is to allow the eyes to view the world, visible light, it is also used for communication, specifically in the â€Å"transport [of] huge volumes of information over very large distances† by means of internal reflection in optical fibers (Emery). Moreover, visible red, green and blue false color assignments are used to reflect radiant energy emitted by the Earth’s surface and atmosphere. Specifically, visible blue light from 0.45 to 0.52  µm is used for mapping details of how deep water-covered areas are, considering that it is the most absorbed wavelength of water. Visible blue light is also utilized by the Landsat TM satellite sensor as spectral band 1 (â€Å"An Introduction to Remote Sensing,† Yale University). Landsat TM is a satellite sensor that detects changes in the biosphere such as wildfires, deforestation and natural calamities and such data on these changes will be provided to concerned institutions including the government, the education sector as well as commercial and industrial communities. (â€Å"Landsat Multispectral Scanner†) Visual green light, on the other hand, from 0.50 to 0.60  µm is also used to map out depth or the presence of sediment in bodies of water. Roads and buildings can also be detected by this particular bandwidth. In satellite sensors, visible green light is used as spectral band 1 in the Landsat MSS, as band 2 in Landsat TM, and as another band in Landsat ETM+. These Landsat satellite sensors aid in the detection of

Effect of Antidepressant Treatment on Sexual Dysfunction

Effect of Antidepressant Treatment on Sexual Dysfunction IMPROVEMENT IN SEXUAL DYSFUNCTION FOLLOWING ANTIDEPRESSANT TREATMENT IN DEPRESSED FEMALES *Dr. Abhivant Niteen N. 1, Dr. Sawant Neena S.2, ABSTRACT Introduction: Depression is associated with sexual dysfunction. As the depression improves sexual dysfunction also improves. There are not many studies on female sexuality. Aims and objectives: To find out the changes in sexual functioning in depressed females after treatment with anti-depressant drugs. Method: 41 female patients diagnosed to have depression were included in study. Becks Depression Inventory and Female Sexual Functioning Index scales were applied at the beginning and after 6 weeks to assess the improvement in sexual dysfunction and depression. Results: When scores were compared after 6 weeks of antidepressant treatment then a highly significant difference was seen on all the scores of BDI ( pConclusions: This study showed significant improvement in sexual dysfunction and different aspects of sexual dysfunctions after treatment with antidepressants for 6 weeks. Keywords: Female sexual dysfunction, Depression, SSRI, FSFI. INTRODUCTION: The issue of sexual health, once regarded as taboo subject, has been widely debated recently. Reliable estimates of incidence and severity of sexual dysfunctions in females is difficult to obtain as the patients are often unwilling to raise the issue of sexual health with health professionals and both the patient and the physician may be reluctant to discuss it. Female sexual dysfunction is multifactorial and multidimensional condition combining biological, psychological and interpersonal determinants [1]. Although sexual dysfunctions are not life threatening, they have major impact on personal relationships, physical health and quality of life. There are several studies on male sexual dysfunctions in India [2] but literature on the prevalence of sexual dysfunction among women is particularly scant [3, 4]. The prospective Zurich cohort study shows that the prevalence of sexual problems in depressed subjects is approximately twice that in controls [5]. A number of investigators have reported various sexual dysfunctions associated with depression [1, 6, 7, 8].Female sexual function is also regulated by a variety of neurotransmitters and hormones. Estrogen, testosterone and progesterone promote sexual desire; dopamine promotes desire and arousal, and norepinephrine promotes arousal [9, 10]. Prolactin inhibits arousal, and oxytocin promotes orgasm [11]. Hence a need was felt to look into the aspects of female sexual dysfunctions and it’s relation to underlying depression and drug therapy. Increased awareness of this problem in medical community will lead to further research in female sexual dysfunctions and improved treatment. AIMS AND OBJECTIVE To find out the changes in sexual functioning in depressed females after treatment with anti-depressant drugs. MATERIAL AND METHODS This study was a prospective (6 week) study conducted in a psychiatry outpatient department of a general municipal hospital. The sample consisted of 52 female patients who were diagnosed to have depression as per Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition, Text revision, criteria after satisfying inclusion and exclusion criteria. INCLUSION CRITERIA: 1) Females diagnosed to have depression as per Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition, Text revision 2) Those who were willing to participate in the study. 3) Language compatibility. EXCLUSION CRITERIA: 1) Females less than 18 years of age. 2) Those with past history of depression or any psychiatric illness. 3)Those who were on any other psychotropic medications. 4) Sexual dysfunction prior to depression. 52 female patients were screened of which 3 patients refused the consent and so had to be dropped out of the study. 49 female patients gave consent and so were enrolled in the study protocol. Of the 49 patients, 8 patients dropped out of the follow-up period over 6 weeks. At the end of 6 weeks, 41 patients were available for analysis. All patients were explained about the nature of study and it’s applications and informed consent was obtained from patients. A proforma was designed to enquire into the socio-demographic details, details of psychopathology, presence of sexual dysfunctions and questions pertaining to aims and objectives of study. All the patients were interviewed in presence of female co-investigator or another lady doctor or a nurse and were interviewed in drug naà ¯ve state and then they were started on any of the Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor medications viz Sertraline, Escitalopram for underlying depression. All the patients were administered Beck’s Depression Inventory and Female Sexual Functioning Index Scale in the drug naà ¯ve state and all the scales were again administered at the end of 6 weeks of anti-depressant medication to gauge the improvement in mood and sexual functioning. TOOLS: 1) BECK’S DEPRESSION INVENTORY: Developed by A. Beck [12] is a rating to measure the severity of depression in which individuals rate their own symptoms of depression. This is a 21 item scale which evaluates the key symptoms of depression including mood, pessimism, sense of failure, self dissatisfaction, self accusation, self dislike, guilt, punishment, suicidal ideas, crying, irritability, social withdrawal, indecisiveness, body image changes, insomnia, fatigability, loss of appetite, weight loss, somatic pre-occupation and loss of libido. Individuals are asked to rate themselves on a 0 to 3 spectrum [0=least, 3=most] with a score range of 0 to 63. Total score is a sum of all items. 2) FEMALE SEXUAL FUNCTIONING INDEX [13]: The Female Sexual Functioning Index is a 19 item questionnaire. It is a brief, multidimensional, self report instrument to assess the key dimensions of sexual function in females. It assesses six domains of sexual function including 1) Desire 2) Physical arousal-sensation Physical arousal-lubrication 4) Orgasm 5) Satisfaction and 6) Pain. All the scales were translated in Marathi and Hindi and were validated by the departmental staff before administration. DATA ANALYSIS: All analyses were done with SPSS statistical version 11 at 5% significance. The changes in tools (Beck’s Depression Inventory, Female Sexual Functioning Index) were analyzed pre and post treatment using the paired‘t’ test. RESULTS The mean age of this sample (n=49) was 28.9 years (+_ 3.03 yrs) with range of 23- 39 years and majority (81.6%) patients were from 25-31 years age group. Majority (63.26%) of patients had completed their secondary education and 94% were home makers with hardly 6% of them doing some job. As expected, about two-third (67.34%) were Hindus. The mean duration of depression was 2 years with standard deviation of 1.8 years with range being from 3 months to 7 years. When all the patients were assessed for improvement in their depression and areas of sexual functioning after a 6 week treatment with SSRI’s viz. Escitalopram (optimum dose 10 to 15 mg) and Sertraline (100mg), then a highly significant difference was seen on all the scores of BDI ( p On the various domains of FSFI a highly significant difference was seen on the domains of Arousal (p DISCUSSION Depressive disorders are among the most prevalent psychiatric disorders [14]. Depression is characterized by loss of interest, reduction in energy, lowered self-esteem and inability to experience pleasure, irritability and social withdrawal which may impair the ability to form and maintain intimate relationships. This constellation of symptoms may be expected to produce difficulties in sexual relationships, and depression has long been associated with sexual problems [15]. A number of investigators have reported association between sexual dysfunctions and depression [1, 6, 7, 8]. Depression is also associated with various neurotransmitter changes which may also contribute to sexual dysfunction in depression [10, 16, 17]. Our study showed that as depression improves, sexual functioning also improves which has been corroborated by Piazza [18] who had studied depressed women with greater sexual dysfunction at baseline and improvement in sexual functioning with treatment with SSRI’s in areas of improvement in sex drive, physiologic and psychological arousal. SSRI’s due to their antidepressant action improve the depression which may consequently reduce the various faulty cognitions associated with depression and enhance the person’s self esteem and energy. Also as the depression improves the various biological changes associated with it also improves which may also contribute to the reduction in sexual dysfunction. In short, with reversal of biological and psychological changes sexual dysfunction improves with SSRI treatment. There are also various studies which have linked SSRI’s with sexual dysfunction and have been discussed in critical reviews [19, 20] but Montgomery and colleagues [21] have also pointed out numerous obstacles to establishing the exact prevalence of antidepressant-related sexual dysfunction. Sex is more than a physical act. It also includes emotional and psychological dimensions. Studies have also shown that besides antidepressants many other factors influence the incidence and prevalence of sexual dysfunction in patients with depression. These include factors such as, depression itself, cultural and social factors and physical and psychiatric co-morbidities [21]. Given the scarcity of evidence-based treatments, the management of sexual dysfunction is still an art rather than a science. Even a seemingly clear-cut case of medication-associated sexual dysfunction should not be treated in a vacuum or in a strictly biological sense. The overall treatment should always take into consideration psychological factors and normal fluctuation of sexual functioning. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: We sincerely acknowledge the support and guidance of Dr. Shubhangi Parkar, Professor and Head, Department of Psychiatry, Seth G. S. Medical College and K. E. M. Hospital, Parel, Mumbai. 400012 REFERENCES: 1. Mathew RJ, Weinman ML: Sexual dysfunctions in depression. Arch Sexual Behav.1982; 11: 323–328 2. Verma K.K. et al: The frequency of sexual dysfunctions in patients attending a sex therapy clinic in north India, Arch sex behav.1998; 27: 309-314 3. Kulhara P, Avasthi A. Sexual dysfunction on the Indian subcontinent. Int Rev Psychiatry.1995; 7: 231-9 4. Avasthi A, Kaur R, Prakash O, Banerjee A, Kumar L, Kulhara P. Sexual behavior of married young women: A preliminary study from north India. Indian J Community Med.2008; 33: 163-7 5. Angst J. Sexual problems in healthy and depressed patients. Int Clin Psychopharmacol.1998; 13 (Suppl 6): S1–3 6. Clayton A H et al: assessment of Paroxetine induced sexual dysfunction using the changes in sexual functioning questionnaire: Psychopharmacol Bull.1995; 31: 397-413 7. Harvey K. V., Balon R: Clinical implications of antidepressant drug effects on sexual functioning; Ann Clin Psychiatry.1995; 7: 189-201 8. Harrison W.M. et al; Effects of an antidepressant medication on sexual function, a controlled study: J Clin Psychopharmacol.1986; 6: 144-149 9. Buss DM. The evolution of desire: Strategies of human mating. London: Harper Collins; 1994. p. 84-5. 10. Bloom FE. Brain, mind and behaviour. W.H. Freeman Co. 1985-88. p.208-17, 227-8. 11. Panksepp J. The foundfations of human and animal emotions.. New York. Oxford University Press. 12. Beck A T et al: â€Å"Psychometric properties of Beck Depression Inventory: Twenty five years of evaluation†. Clin Psychol Rev.1988; 8: 77-100 13. R Rosen et al: Journ of Sex and Marital therapy.2000; 26: 191-208 14. Rihmer Z, Angst A.; Mood disorders: Epidemiology: in Comprehensive Textbook Of Psychiatry; Sadock B J, Sadock V. A.; 8th edition, Lippincott Williams And Wilkins; 2004. 15. Baldwin DS. Depression and sexual function. J Psychopharmacol.1996; 10 (Suppl. 1): S30–34 16. Clayton A H. Sexual dysfunction in depression. Tricks of the trade in the long-term treatment of depression. Program and abstracts of the American Psychiatric Association 156th Annual Meeting; May 17-22, 2003; San Francisco, California. 17. Levin R. J. et al: The mechanism of human female sexual arousal; Ann Rev Sex Res.1992; 3: 1-48 18. Piazza L. A., Markowitz J. C., Kocsis J.H.: Sexual functioning in chronically depressed patients treated with SSRI Antidepressants: A pilot study; Am J Psychiatry.1997; 154: 1757-1759 19. Rosen RC, Lane RM, Menza M: Effects of SSRIs on sexual function: a critical review. J Clin Psychopharmacology.1999; 19: 67–85 20. Williams VSL, Baldwin DS, Hogue SL, Fehnel SE, Hollis KA, Edin HM: Estimating the prevalence and impact of antidepressant-induced sexual dysfunction in 2 European countries: a cross-sectional patient survey. J Clin Psychiatry.2006; 67: 204–210 21. Montgomery SA, Baldwin DS, Riley A: Antidepressant medications: a review of the evidence for drug-induced sexual dysfunction. J Affect Disord. 2002; 69: 119–140

Myths and Realities Essay -- Philosophy Learning Essays

Myths and Realities At least since the 1990 publication of Senge's The Fifth Discipline, the concept of the learning organization (LO) has been promoted as a way to restructure organizations to meet the challenges of the coming century. What are learning organizations-in theory and in practice? Are they a real solution or the latest in a series of reform fads? The myths and realities are explored in this publication. Getting a Grip on the Learning Organization Of course, there is not yet a consensus on the definition of a learning organization. Any type of organization can be a learning organization-businesses, educational institutions, nonprofits, community groups. Some authors agree that LOs start with the assumptions that learning is valuable, continuous, and most effective when shared and that every experience is an opportunity to learn. LOs have the following characteristics (Calvert et al. 1994; Watkins and Marsick 1993): They provide continuous learning opportunities. They use learning to reach their goals. They link individual performance with organizational performance. They foster inquiry and dialogue, making it safe for people to share openly and take risks. They embrace creative tension as a source of energy and renewal. They are continuously aware of and interact with their environment. Senge's "five disciplines" are the keys to achieving this type of organization: personal mastery, mental models, shared vision, team learning, and systems thinking. According to Senge, the fifth, systems thinking, is the most important and underlies the rest. Of course, in a sense "organizations" do not learn, the people in them do, and individual learning may go on all the time. What is different a... ...(ERIC No. EJ 483 293) Smith, G. J., and Stodden, R. A. "Restructuring Vocational Special Needs Education through Interdisciplinary Team Effort." Journal for Vocational Special Needs Education16, no. 3 (Spring 1994): 16-23. (ERIC No. EJ 482 768) Solomon, C. M. "HR Facilitates the Learning Organization Concept." Personnel Journal 73, no. 11 (November 1994): 56-66. Watkins, K. E., and Marsick, V. J. Sculpting the Learning Organization. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1993. West, P. "The Learning Organization: Losing the Luggage in Transit?" Journal of European Industrial Training18, no. 11 (1994): 30-38. (ERIC No. EJ 497 198) West, W. "Learning Organizations: A Critical Review." In Proceedings of the Midwest Research-to-Practice Conference,edited by L. Martin. Madison: University of Wisconsin, 1994. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 378 359)

Imperialism and Capitalism

Imperialism which is often considered to be a final stage of capitalism was a logical continuation of industrialization, development of trade and colonization. Global trade and goods exchange have united Europe, Africa, America and Asia into an integral organism. Imperial system as well as interaction between the major colonial super-powers guaranteed economical stability and peace. Colonies were perfect markets for the goods produced in metropolises and were used as emergency zones in cases of overproduction in order to prevent global or local economical crisis. Colonies were used as raw material donors of metropolitan industry. In order to prevent movement for political and economical independence, colonies were not allowed to have industrial objects as their economical activity was limited to farming and mining. On the hand with traditional colonial system which took place in France, Great Britain, Belgium which had huge possessions worldwide, American imperialism had introduced a new one without any formal colonial possessions. American imperialism was different from British and French as it penetrated into independent countries, making their single-sector economies be dependent upon the price policies set by American corporations. American imperialists used different methods in order to widen their spheres of influence in western hemisphere: bribery of corrupted officials, aiding political opposition of unwanted regimes and even open intervention by American troops which always ended with establishing of puppet governments. These methods were used on Philippines, Cuba, and Puerto-Rico. The effects of imperialism are quite different both for colonies and imperial metropolises: from one side goods exchange ensured economical stability, from the other side imperial ambitions of superpowers resulted WW1. Colonies experienced mostly negative impacts: industrial backwardness, dependence upon metropolises, poverty, social injustice and discrimination. Of course the appearance of imperialism as a new world order at the beginning of the twentieth century had provoked continuing discussions about its real impacts on civilization. Contemporaries either supported imperialism or sharply criticized it. Kipling, for example, insisted that imperialism was a logical continuation of civilization progress and it was vital in order western civilization to survive, as it prevented it from economical and social crisis, guaranteed goods exchange, development of trade and stability in western world. This concept is rather conservative as Kipling also supports the idea of racial and cultural superiority of western civilization and this factor is considered to be justification of colonial expansion in his theory. On the other hand such authors as Hobson consider imperialism to be one of the alternatives to economical development which has a global character and is resulted by concentration of wealth within one country. Hobson argues that in order world economy to develop, this wealth has to be distributed overseas as it will promote development of both economies: metropolitan and colonial. The growth of anti-imperialist movement was resulted by its destructive influence on colonial countries which appeared to be in total dependence from imperialist states. Anti-imperialist movement took place in India, China, and Latin America. In fact the accident which led to WW1 had also anti-imperialist background, as Serbian revolutionaries were afraid that Serbia will become a dependent territory of Austria-Hungary. The results of WW1 were contradictory for different countries. Four European empires: Germany, Austria Hungary, Russian and Ottoman Empire collapsed in 1918 when the war was over. Moreover, prolonged economical and social crisis caused by the 4 years of bloody war had resulted a series of revolutions and public unrest world wide, changing political orientation of many countries. Bolshevik revolution in Russia brought to power a small group of political radicals led by Vladimir Lenin, who started to build a new order in semi-feudal country according to Marxist ideas of equality, abolition of private property and establishment of proletariat dictatorship. Tsarist regime was substituted by a new radical ideology of communism which was alien to Russian peasants and middle class. The years of prolonged terror, artificial hunger, repressions had changed the country and had changed people†s mentality to the mentality of oppressed people who was living under dictator†s rule. A new Soviet nation was raised in the fear of capitalist world, in the fear of the possible threat from the side of international capitalism and in constant preparation for war. Actually the premises for future cold war originated in interwar period and foreign intervention against Soviet Russia in 1919-1921 had only deepened fear of Soviet people. Stalin, a new leader of Communist party had created his own doctrine of socialist state. Rapid industrialization and collectivization in agricultural sector had changed country†s economy, making it stable and more advanced. In fact, Communist Russia was the only country which experienced economical growth starting from middle 1920†³s and going all the way to 1941, whiles the world of capitalism was suffering from global economical crisis. Communism became a potential threat for capitalist world and the USSR had become an ideological enemy of the West. Stalin understood it quite well and was getting ready for a possible war. Industrialization and militarization of economy were essential in order to survive and provide security to the country. As the power of the Soviet Union grew, it became obvious that it would have territorial ambitions for the spread of communist ideology worldwide. Prosperity in major European countries and in the USA in early 1920†³s was contrasted by deep economical and social crisis in Germany and Italy. The conditions of Versailles treaty had imposed unbearable obligations on Germany as the government of Weimar republic had to pay huge reparations to victors of WW1. Besides, ruined infrastructure of Germany lacked mineral resources and industry as Germany lost the region of Saar, Alsace-Lorraine and several major seaports on the coast of the Baltic Sea together with several colonies in Africa and Asia. The country had no opportunity for development; new democratic government failed to rebuild country†s infrastructure, only irritating people and provoking social unrest. Humiliated nation wanted revenge and retreat. Liberties and democratic freedoms of Weimar constitution were not popular as the nation felt nostalgia about the time of iron order and international respect. Crisis of Weimar republic turned into growth of nationalism and chauvinistic ideas, supported by common people and former WW1 soldiers and officers who were left forgotten by government. This is the main explanation of fascism success in Germany. Crisis in Italy had many similar features to German one. Unemployment, poverty and social unrest in early 1920†³s had created a favorable climate for the rise of Benito Mussolini, the leader of a new party formed by WW1 soldiers and officers who were irritated by economical crisis. Mussolini†s populist ideas were close both to common people ans to upper classes as he promised social stability and order. Mussolini†s political program was successful in 1920†³s and in early 1930†³s as he stabilized economy, solved major social problems of poverty, unemployment and other social vices and returned self respect and pride to Italian nation. His government controlled media, regulated economy and social life of the country. But at the same time Mussolini revealed militaristic ambitions of fascist Italia- intervention and capture of Abyssinia is the best proof of it. War in Abyssinia was not the only conflict fought after the WW1. On the Far East, Militarist Japan started intervention against Manchuria in 1938. These conflicts have shown the weakness of League of Nation, organization which was created in order to preserve peace and prevent wars and local conflicts. Economical crisis on the hand with disintegration of the capitalist world and growing threat from ideological enemy of capitalism-the USSR demonstrate the complicated system international relations in inter-war period. The results of WW1 became obvious after the 20 year period: 2 totalitarian states (the USSR and Nazi Germany) which had colonial ambitions stood against disintegrated democratic world, which was to weak to resist aggression of these two superpowers. The inter war period in the world history is characterized by three different concepts of state development: communist, fascist and traditional democratic. Even though they are hostile, each was successful on a certain stage of development as it had taken ruined Russian empire, Germany and the USA out of economical crisis and had returned confidence and stability to their peoples. After Bolsheviks revolution in Russia, former empire was turned into a new state ruled by the Communist Party. Communist party of the USSR had made radical changes realizing Marxist ideas about revolution and dictatorship of proletariat: abolition of private property, nationalization and equality of all citizens. Understandably in a patriarchal agricultural country with underdeveloped industry and ruined economy any idea about a strong state of proletariat (working class) would fail, but not in Russia. Stalin, who became the head of the communist party in 1928, had his own plan how to reform economy: he proclaimed a course on rapid industrialization and collectivization of farming enterprises. In order to achieve development of industry he performed redistribution of property, expropriating agricultural products from peasants and making them work in kolkhozes (collective state owned farms). In fact he turned free farmers into state slaves who had no property and had to work on state farms in order to survive. This cruel and inhuman practice gave the opportunity to develop heavy industry; mining and it gave the opportunity to start militarization. These results were achieved by numerous victims of innocent people who suffered from repressions and great purges as Stalin†s regime eliminated anyone who had another opinion on the destiny of the country. The total number of Stalin†s victims exceeds 20 million people. So what were his achievements? In quite a short period (20 years) Russia was turned into an industrial state with developing industry and one of the strongest armies in Europe. Society had changed as it was developing according to a socialist model. State was the only power in the country, state was the only property owner. Citizens in majority were nearly equal; the difference between those who had the highest and the lowest income was not really distinct as in capitalist world. In fact, state provided a working citizen with essential facilities for living and guaranteed basic social and medial care. People got the facilities in order to work good enough but nothing else. The order in the country was realized by a total control of media, press and oppression of any potential opposition. Communism substituted religion as the official religion of communist state was atheism, communist party controlled all spheres of life, which led to the isolation of the country. Free market was substituted by barter within the country and market relations were substituted by planned economy.. From historical point of view, the politics of Stalin, even being brutal and inhuman, was justified by historical need, as in order to survive and not collapse, Soviet Russia had to become a super power with a strong army and developed industry from an out-dated, semi-feudal empire with ineffective state management and corrupted aristocratic government. The main weakness of Stalin†s Russia was that the only condition under which the country could stand and continue its development was the policy of terror and oppression of any potential threat in the face of political opposition. Such kind of regime, based only on suppression of human individualism, collectivism and isolation from the rest of the world would definitely fail if some liberties were allowed. So if to look on the history of the Soviet Union starting from Nikita Khrushchev we will see the gradual decline of totalitarian empire, which collapsed in 1991. Another example of totalitarian state of inter-war period is Nazi Germany. Nazi Germany led by Adolph Hitler embodied fascist ideas about a strong state with iron order. Hitler†s phenomenon was a direct result of Versailles Treaty consequences for after war Germany. Humiliated nation, which suffered the burden of huge reparations, deep economical; depression and social crisis caused by ineffective politics of democratic government of Weimar republic wanted the only thing retreat and revenge. So chauvinist and radical ideas of Nazis have succeeded. Germans saw a leader in Hitler, who promised return international respect and prosperity to the nation. Hitler†s political program was very simple and it satisfied Germans fully. Hitler promised descent work to workers and guaranteed protection of private property to businessmen. But his political program was also based on racial hatred, anti-Semitism, blind chauvinism and aggression. Nazis used nearly the same methods of oppression Stalin practiced during â€Å"great purges†, but they focused on ethnic non-German minorities, Communists and political opposition to Hitler†s national-Socialist Party. German economy during Hitler†s regime was also state regulated, as the owners of industrial objects had certain obligations: they had to provide decent wages to workers and had to fulfill industrial state orders. Hitler had changed economy, he made it military oriented preparing the nation for a war. Social life during Nazi regime was also subjected to total control, fascist government controlled media, eliminated political opposition, persecuted ethnic minorities, which turned into Holocaust and genocide during WW2. Hitler†s regime which had to solve racial and territorial question was inhuman and contradicted modern human consciousness. It had to be stop anyway by international coalition, otherwise the absurd and paranoia of one man would cause a world human tragedy. The methods of state regulation were also present during Roosevelt†s office even though he represented a free democratic country living under the laws of capitalism. Roosevelt†s New deal was a set of reforms and a set of measures taken in order to relief the affects of the Great depression. State regulation over prices, control over banks activity and other measures had strengthened economy, getting the country of crisis. Nevertheless, despite the terrible affects of economical crisis and Great depression the USA stood and recovered. Comparing social and economical situation in the USSR, the USA and Germany in inter-war period we may find several similar features in activities of their governments. All of them provided social programs for citizens in order to guarantee realization of basic human living needs: health care, education, social protection and basic welfare programs. All three political regimes used state control over economy, which never used before. But in comparison to the USA where it had a temporary character, Germany and the USSR used it as an integral method of state administration which guaranteed stability and security.

Eastern Philosophy vs. Western Realism Essays

Eastern Philosophy vs. Western Realism Essays Eastern Philosophy vs. Western Realism Paper Eastern Philosophy vs. Western Realism Paper Where people are born seems to have tremendous Influence upon how they think. After reading both the philosophies of Ala-Thus and the Buddha, I can say they are very different from what I have learned growing up In the States. It seems that both of these teachings of eastern thought have many of the same ideas. Both Ala-Thus and the Buddha seem to believe that a simple life is more efficient. They suggest that people should provide for themselves only the necessities and not worry about luxury or power and prestige. In their writings, they say that rulers of a society would let people control their own actions and only intervene when absolutely necessary. After living under a capitalist democracy for all of my nineteen years, I must say their philosophies would be difficult to adapt to. Our society rewards hard work and initiative; we are taught to strive for success. Eastern philosophy doesnt seem realistic because It goes against the Initiative In human nature. It seems people would have to go against their emotions to follow these eastern teachings. The first discrepancy I see In eastern philosophy Is their thoughts on the roles of a societys leader. It seems that they play the part of a referee In a football game; they only Intervene when someone does something wrong. They dont really show their authority unless it is completely necessary. In western thought, a leader is there to set laws and make decisions that will directly affect those under them. Teddy Roosevelt promoted himself as the President who, Spoke softly but carried a big stick, which is a prime example of the emphasis placed on power in western thought. It seems to me that with all the laws we have, we have a great amount of people who break them. I think if we lived under a system based on eastern philosophy, with less Evans 2 authority given to those In power, we would see a large Increase In crime. I dont think society as a whole would be able to handle being ruled so unobtrusively because of the malicious tendencies many people have naturally. People need certain boundaries if chaos is going to be avoided. Ala-thus and the Buddha also seem to promote a system of equality in their teachings. Ala-thus says that the success of the rich provides for the downfall of the poor and he seems to think that the upper class corrupts society (stanza 34, peg. 5). They think that if people arent concerned with prosperity, they will be much more content. This seems to go against everything I have ever learned; in western philosophy people are very concerned with success. People work hard to go to good schools, and then they work hard in school to get better Jobs. Nothing in western society comes easy; If you want to accomplish something, It takes hard work. It seems to me that this Is a much better policy than that of eastern thought. Western society seems to be based on a survival of the fittest system, while easterners believe In savageness and equal opportunity. Their system would require people to hold back, to settle Tort second nest; It doesnt seem to play to ten nature AT unmans well. Do people prefer doing things that dont come naturally? Of course not, we want to be able to follow our emotions; we want to fulfill our inner needs. If we were forced to give up the opportunities of success and power, what would we live for? Eastern philosophy suggests that people shouldnt want anything more than they have. How could we survive if we have nothing to work for?

How Honorifics Are Used in English

How Honorifics Are Used in English An honorific is a conventional word, title, or grammatical form that signals respect, politeness, or social deference. Also known as a  courtesy title or an address term. The most common forms of honorifics (sometimes called  referent honorifics) are honorary titles used  before names  in salutations- for example, Mr. Spock,  Princess Leia, Professor X. In comparison to languages such as Japanese and Korean, English doesnt have an especially rich system of honorifics. Commonly used honorifics  in English include Mr., Mrs., Ms., Captain, Coach, Professor, Reverend  (to a member of the clergy),  and  Your Honor  (to a judge), among others. (The abbreviations Mr., Mrs., and Ms. usually end in a period in American English  but not in British English- Mr, Mrs, and Ms.) Examples and Observations Mrs. Lancaster, you are an impressively punctual person, Augustus said as he sat down next to me.(John Green, The Fault in Our Stars. Dutton, 2012)The Reverend Bond walked up to the horse, smiling up at Benton.Afternoon, Reverend, Benton said to him.Good afternoon, Mister Benton, Bond answered. My apologies for stopping you. I just wanted to find out how things went yesterday.(Richard Matheson, The Gun Fight. M. Evans, 1993)Princess Dala:  The Pink Panther is in my safe, at . . ..Inspector Jacques Clouseau: Your Highness, please. Dont say it, not here.(Claudia Cardinale and Peter Sellers in The Pink Panther, 1963)The New York Times waited until 1986 to announce that it would embrace the use of Ms. as an honorific alongside Miss and Mrs.(Ben Zimmer, Ms. The New York Times, Oct. 23, 2009)John Bercow, Speaker, Britains First Commoner (thats an honorific for the class conscious of you out there), was greeting and welcoming his new intake in Portcullis House. He is master of this domain .(Simon Carr, My Ill-Tempered Encounter With the Speaker. The Independent, May 12, 2010) The Honorifics Maam and Sir in the U.S. and Britain-The use of maam and sir is  much more common in the South than elsewhere in the United States, where calling adults maam and sir can be taken as being disrespectful or cheeky. In the South, the terms convey just the opposite. Johnson (2008) reported that when two English 101 classes  at a university in South Carolina were surveyed, data showed that Southern English speakers used maam and sir for three reasons: to address someone older or in an authority position, to show respect, or to maintain or reestablish good relations with someone. Maam and sir are also frequently used by Southerners in customer service, such as restaurant servers.(Anne H. Charity Hudley and Christine Mallinson, Understanding English Language Variation in U.S. Schools.  Teachers College Press, 2011)Now you must understand  that in the British Isles, the  honorific Sir  is very widely used to bestow a  knighthood  on any citizen who performs exc eptionally well in public life. A leading jockey can become a Sir. A leading actor. Famous cricket players. Queen Elizabeth has awarded the title in honorary form to [U.S. presidents] Reagan and Bush.(James A. Michener,  Recessional. Random House, 1994) H.L. Mencken on HonorificsAmong the honorifics in everyday use in England and the United States, one finds many notable divergences between the two languages. On the one hand the English are almost as diligent as the Germans in bestowing titles of honor upon their men of mark, and on the other hand, they are very careful to withhold such titles from men who do not legally bear them. In America, every practitioner of any branch of the healing art, even a chiropodist or an osteopath, is a doctor ipso facto, but in England, a good many surgeons lack the title and it is not common in the lesser ranks. . . .In all save a few large cities of America every male pedagogue is a professor, and so is every band leader, dancing master, and medical consultant. But in England, the title is very rigidly restricted to men who hold chairs in the universities, a necessarily small body.(H.L. Mencken, The American Language, 1921)T-V DistinctionIn many languages . . . the second person plural pronoun of address doubles as an honorific form to singular respected or distant alters. Such usages are called T/V systems, after the French tu and vous (see Brown and Gilman 1960). In such languages, the use of a T (singular non-honorific pronoun) to a non-familiar alter can claim solidarity.Other address forms used to convey such in-group membership include generic names and terms of address like Mac, mate, buddy, pal, honey, dear, duckie, luv, babe, Mom, blondie, brother, sister, cutie, sweetheart, guys, fellas.(Penelope Brown and Stephen C. Levinson, Politeness: Some Universals in Language Usage. Cambridge University Press, 1987) Pronunciation: ah-ne-RI-fik

How has the internet changed the way we buy Essay

How has the internet changed the way we buy - Essay Example Online shopping is a hot and growing trend because the lifestyle of consumers has changed due to the fast pace environment of the 21st century. Americans are working longer hours and in most families, both the man and woman must work in order to be able to pay their living expenses. Shopping online has become a way to acquire goods without the hassles of having to go to the stores. Many people simply do not have the time to commute to a store to acquire goods. Using the internet to make purchases is a mechanism that allows people to browse through stores out of the comfort of their homes. Another great benefit of online shopping is that most goods online are cheaper than at retail stores. The reason that online stores are able to offer lower prices is because e-commerce websites have lower overhead costs than traditional stores. They do not have to pay fix expenses such as building rent, utilities, insurance, and an online operation can be run with lower labor costs. Another advantag e of online shopping is that customers have thousands of websites to choose from, thus comparative online shopping can be achieved at a fraction of the time that it would take a shopper to visit a bunch of stores to find an item in a retail setting. Another tremendous benefit that e-commerce provides customers is product variety. A person shopping online can search various websites to compare prices at a fraction of the time that it would take a retail shopper. Shoppers online also have the ability to shop from international stores. The internet also offers specialty websites such as EBay in which shoppers can find incredible bargains due to the auction mechanism of the website. We are currently living in the convergence economic age. In this new economic era a wide variety of technologies are converging to allow people to connect devices to achieve penetration of the internet using new innovative tools such as smartphones. The smartphones are another key instrument

The payment is made as soon as the contract is signed Case Study

The payment is made as soon as the contract is signed - Case Study Example All of a sudden if Jason says he is insolvent, or even proves to be. Jim is the one who will be actually stuck in the entire situation. Jim is probably thinking, Jason's not going to pay him. In certain contracts, the payment is made as soon as the contract is signed. So there are two possibilities. One: If the payment has already been made to Jim, all he needs to worry about is that Jason, might not claim in court, that now that he is insolvent this contract is null and void and so he wants' the money back. Two: if the payment is yet to be made, then Jason will definitely want to not make the payment. Jim has the right to make his point in court in both the cases. What Jim needs to understand is the fact that under the JCT 05 Standard Form of Building Contract with Quantities contract. The general law, right to stop otherwise denies a contract can come up in a lot of situations. Initially, a single party can make it apparent that it has no intent of performing its part of the good deal. Secondly, that party might be responsible of such a grave violation of contract that it will be tackled as bearing no target of acting. An occurrence of this type is recognized by law as a repudiatory breach. In mutual cases, the innocent party has an alternative; either to confirm the contract also holds the additional party to its responsibilities at the same time as asserting costs as apt for the breach, or else to get the contract to an ending. If negation is decided on for, then both the parties are free from any more contractual compulsion to carry out.1Also Jim ought to know that not every breach is alike nor do the astringent parties essentially have the similar privileges for the diverse breaches. For instance if in a case a contractor is thrown out his job, the contractor may discover it the tough way that project financer acted irrationally plus used irrational force, moreover it may be acknowledged the one in defaulting.2If Jason gets in touch with Jim, this act will be then by action of law, and will take place where the accountable party has committed a basic infringe and the blameless party has then b y remark or act chosen to believe the refutation and finish the contract. In this case Jim will not be claiming any rights that he might have in this case. Jim should opt for a scenario wherein, he might have chances to claim his damages while at the same time abiding by his contractual commitment. It is vital that Jim as the innocent party ascertains evidently the lawful base for this path of action. More significantly, it ought to be esteemed that the distressed party is forever permitted to seek alternative for a specific violation through an action in indemnity. If Jason does terminate the, it would hence, be the last option, wherever any possible quantum of payment in the shape of a grant for damages is expected to be inadequate to give good reason for the continuation of the focused agreement. Jim has by law the right, to claim for damages while any breach of contract can give rise to a claim for damages, because the evasion by Jason would be specifically of a very grave or essential nature. Jim can claim his right to the damages. It would be wiser to wait and see what Jason's next step will be and decide accordingly in light of a ll above given advice. Section 2) The statement tort is derivative from the